On 1 August 1959, the French External Documentation and Counter-Intelligence Department drafts a classified document containing details of economic penetration in some African countries by Soviet bloc countries. The analysis looks at Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Libya, Nigeria, Sudan and the Union of South Africa.

In September 1959, the French diplomatic service publishes a series of maps showing the influence of communism in Africa. The maps illustrate economic, political and military aid from communist countries.

‘The white man, then what?' For the German cartoonist, Behrendt, the end of 1959 experiences a strong wave of decolonisation in Africa. Increasing numbers of Africans countries gain their independence and, in so doing, bring about an end of the absolute supremacy of European powers in the world.

‘New people’. In January 1960, the cartoonist Fritz Behrendt takes an ironic look at the decolonisation of Africa and at the handing over of power to new despotic regimes.

On 8 November 1941, Félix Éboué, Governor-General of French Equatorial Africa (AEF), sets out the broad lines of a new indigenous policy for the AEF. He particularly advocates respect for traditions, support for traditional leaders, the development of existing social structures and the improvement of working conditions. This circular letter by Félix Éboué serves as a basis for the Brazzaville Conference, held from 30 January to 8 February 1944 for the governors of the colonies in order to reorient the policy of the French colonial empire.

In 1943, in preparation for the Brazzaville Conference that is due to be held from 30 January to 8 February 1944 between the governors of the colonies at the invitation of the French Committee for National Liberation (CFLN), the General Directorate for Economic Services of French West Africa (AOF) drafts a note on the various aspects of the AOF’s future economic policy. The recommendations of the General Directorate are particularly based on the circular letter of 8 November 1941 by Félix Éboué entitled The new indigenous policy for French Equatorial Africa.

On 30 January 1944, René Pleven, Commissioner for the Colonies in the French Committee for National Liberation (CFLN), gives an address at the opening session of the Brazzaville Conference. This conference from 30 January to 8 February 1944 between the governors of the French colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, convened by the provisional government of General de Gaulle and chaired by René Pleven, was held to review the relations between France and its colonies.

On 30 January 1944, in Brazzaville, the capital of French Equatorial Africa (AEF), General de Gaulle opens the French African Conference between the representatives of the French territories in Africa. The aim of this conference is to lay the foundations for the future relations between France and its colonies.

On 8 February 1944, in his closing address, René Pleven, Commissioner for the Colonies in the French Committee for National Liberation (CFLN), gives a positive assessment of the Brazzaville Conference. This conference between the governors of the French colonies of Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, which took place from 30 January to 8 February 1944, was convened by the provisional government of General de Gaulle to determine the future relations between France and its colonies.

On 28 February 1944, the Political Affairs Directorate of the French Ministry of the Colonies sends a note to the Provisional Consultative Assembly of the French Committee for National Liberation (CFLN) outlining the results of the Brazzaville Conference. Several recommendations were made at the end of this conference between the governors of the colonies, including the abolition of the colonial régime de l’indigénat and forced labour, the maintenance of traditional institutions, access for natives to all jobs, the establishment of local assemblies and representation of the colonies in the future Constituent Assembly.

On 21 October 1946, the Liaison Service with the Natives of French Overseas Territories (SLOTFOM) in the Political Affairs Directorate of the French Ministry of the Colonies carries out an enquiry on the African independence movement.

In 1956, the African Socialist Movement (MSA) publishes a manifesto in which it sets out its intention to establish a political, cultural, economic and social democracy in French Sub-Saharan Africa, with full independence for every individual.

On 4 July 1957, the French journal L’Economie: journal d’informations industrielles, financières & agricoles du monde entier examines the consequences of the Loi-cadre Defferre (Reform Act). The Act on the development of overseas territories, drafted by Gaston Defferre, Minister for Overseas France in Guy Mollet’s government, with the support of Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Mayor of Abidjan and the first President of Côte d’Ivoire, and adopted on 23 June 1956, represents an important stage in the process of emancipation of the colonial territories in French Africa (introduction of universal suffrage and a single electoral college, establishment of government councils, extension of the powers of territorial assemblies, administrative reforms, etc.).

On 26 September 1957, at the Third International Congress of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement démocratique africain or RDA) in Bamako, the President of the RDA, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, gives a presentation of the movement’s activity and policy report in which he analyses the RDA’s development and results.

On 29 September 1957, at the Third International Congress of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement démocratique africain or RDA) in Bamako, Gabriel d’Arboussier, one of the founders of the RDA, presents the political resolution of the RDA Congress. The Congress particularly welcomes the 1956 Loi-cadre Defferre (Reform Act) as an irreversible step along the road to emancipation for the people of Africa.

On 29 September 1957, at the Third International Congress of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement démocratique africain or RDA) in Bamako, Gabriel Lisette, one of the leaders of the RDA, presents the economic resolution of the RDA Congress. The Congress believes that the most pressing task for the RDA is to raise living standards by increasing revenue in Africa.

In a letter dated 29 September 1957, the General Government of French West Africa (AOF) outlines its first impressions on the prevailing atmosphere at the Third International Congress of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement démocratique africain or RDA) in Bamako.

On 1 October 1957, commenting on the Third International Congress of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement démocratique africain or RDA), which took place from 25 to 30 September 1957 in Bamako, Ouezzin Coulibaly, one of the founders of the RDA and Vice-President of the Government Council of Upper Volta, outlines the main characteristics of the RDA Congress in an article in the weekly publication Afrique Nouvelle.

On 5 October 1957, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, President of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement démocratique africain or RDA), grants an interview to the French daily newspaper Le Monde in which he identifies lessons to be learned from the Third International Congress of the RDA, held from 25 to 30 September 1957 in Bamako.

In March 1958, Les Cahiers du Communisme, a monthly theoretical and political journal published by the Central Committee of the French Communist Party, reports on the struggle in Sub-Saharan Africa against colonialism, examining the current aspirations of African populations and the nature of their movement for independence. The article particularly emphasises “Africa’s right to independence”.

In a statement made on 18 July 1958 to Agence France Presse (AFP), Djibo Bakary, Vice-President of the Government Council of Niger and General Secretary of the African Regroupment Party (PRA), is highly critical of General de Gaulle’s plan to replace the French Union with a French Community.

In a press release dated August 1958, the Presidency of the Government Council of Mauritania welcomes the decision by General de Gaulle to visit the overseas territories in order to provide further details about the plan for a French Community, which will be put to a referendum.

On 16 September 1958, the police department in Niger forwards a press release issued the previous day by the SAWABA, the Nigerien section of the African Regroupment Party (PRA). The SAWABA explains its position on the draft constitution by General de Gaulle and calls on the population to vote ‘no’ in the referendum on 28 September 1958.

On 19 September 1958, the President of the Government Council of Dahomey, Sourou-Migan Apithy, gives a radio broadcast on behalf of the Dahomeyan Progressive Party (PPD) in which he expresses his support for General de Gaulle’s draft constitution and calls on the people to vote ‘yes’ in the referendum due to be held on 28 September 1958.

Ahmed Sékou Touré, first President of the Republic of Guinea (1958–1984).

On 10 November 1958, Pierre Messmer, High Commissioner of French West Africa, informs Bernard Cornut-Gentille, French Minister for Overseas Territories, that he is fearful of disruption in Dahomey. Although the people of Dahomey voted in favour of the French Community in the referendum on 28 September 1958, Pierre Messmer is concerned that several members of the Dahomey Government are opposed to the Community and are expressing their solidarity with Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré.

In a tract dated 25 November 1958, the African Regroupment Party–Senegal (PRA–S) expresses its regret that the Senegalese Territorial Assembly has opted for the status of Autonomous State within the French Community. The PRA is strongly opposed to this decision and calls for immediate independence for Senegal.

After the referendum held on 28 September 1958 returns a vote in favour of integration into the French Community, the Republic of Dahomey is proclaimed on 4 December and Sourou Migan Apithy becomes President of the Government Council. In his address to the Territorial Assembly, President Apithy discusses relations between Dahomey and France.

On 23 December 1958, the Political Affairs Directorate of the Ministry for Overseas France expresses concern at the future of the approximately 3 000 French nationals living in Guinea. In the referendum held on 28 September 1958, Guinea was the only overseas territory to reject the French Community. This resulted in the proclamation of independence on 2 October and the breakdown of relations with France.

On 8 May 1959, the Nigerian Prime Minister Diori Hamani (on the left) and the French Prime Minister Michel Debré (on the right) sign the draft agreement between France and Niger at the Hôtel Matignon in Paris. Niger gains independence on 3 August 1960.

On 21 March 1960, General de Gaulle chairs the seventh session of the Executive Committee of the French Community at the Élysée Palace. From left to right: Modibo Keita (President of the Federal Assembly of the Mali Federation), Louis Jacquinot (Minister of State), Auguste Denise (Minister from Côte d’Ivoire), Charles de Gaulle (President of the French Republic), Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Prime Minister of Côte d’Ivoire) and Jacques Chastenet (former adviser to the French Union).

In May 1960, the monthly publication L’Outre-Mer Africain looks back over the development of the French colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa, from the adoption in 1956 of the Reform Act initiated by Gaston Deferre to the independence of the countries of Africa. The journalist asserts that France must maintain friendly relations with its former colonies and continue its assistance efforts.

On 12 April 1960, after signing the agreements between France and Madagascar in Paris which are to lead to Madagascar’s independence on 26 June 1960, Philibert Tsiranana, first President of the Malagasy Republic, is welcomed by the crowds in Antananarivo.

In June 1960, the monthly publication L’Outre-Mer Africain outlines the development of the French colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa from the establishment of the French Union to independence.

On 20 June 1960, Modibo Keïta, President of the Federal Assembly of the Mali Federation (on the left), and Mamadou Dia, Vice-President of the Mali Federation (on the right), meet French Prime Minister Michel Debré (centre) at the Hôtel Matignon in Paris to celebrate the independence of the Mali Federation. Two months after this meeting, Senegal withdrew from the federation and proclaimed its independence. Mamadou Dia became Prime Minister. On 22 September 1960, led by Modibo Keïta, the Sudanese Republic proclaimed its independence in turn, but kept the name Mali.

On 27 July 1960, on his first official visit to Paris, the first President of the Republic of Cameroon (1960–1982), Ahmadou Ahidjo, is welcomed by French President Charles de Gaulle. Independence for the French part of Cameroon was proclaimed on 1 January 1960; Cameroon was the first of 18 African colonies to gain independence in 1960.

Moktar Ould Daddah, first President of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania (1961–1978).

Hubert Maga, first President of the Republic of Dahomey (1960–1963).

On 15 August 1960, the official ceremony for the independence of the Republic of the Congo is held in Brazzaville, attended by the French Minister for Culture, André Malraux (on the left), Abbot Fulbert Youlou, the first President of the Republic of the Congo (centre), and Colonel Daboval (on the right).

On 5 September 1960, the new President of the Republic of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor (on the left), and the Senegalese Prime Minister, Mamadou Dia (on the right), greet the crowds in the streets of Dakar.

Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Prime Minister of Côte d’Ivoire (1960) and first President of Côte d’Ivoire (1960–1993).

Maurice Yaméogo, first President of the Republic of Upper Volta (1960–1966).

Modibo Keita, first President of the Republic of Mali (1960–1968).

François Tombalbaye, first President of the Republic of Chad (1960–1975).

David Dacko, first President of the Central African Republic (1960–1966; 1979–1981).

On 16 September 1960, General de Gaulle welcomes Sylvanus Olympio, the new President of the Togolese Republic, to the Élysée Palace. The photo also shows French Prime Minister Michel Debré (on the left) and French Foreign Minister Maurice Couve de Murville (on the right).

On 13, 14 and 15 August 1963, an uprising known as the Trois Glorieuses (the Three Glorious Days) overthrew the institutions of the first Republic of Congo and, under pressure from the trade union movement, Abbé Fulbert Youlou was forced to resign.

On 7 October 1967, French President Charles de Gaulle welcomes Léon M’ba, the first President of the Gabonese Republic (1961–1967). In the background: Jacques Foccart, the President’s Secretary-General for African and Malagasy Affairs.

This photo dated 3 March 1975 shows a demonstration by members of the Mayotte political party Mouvement populaire mahorais (Mayotte People’s Movement or MPM), who carry signs saying Nous voulons rester français (‘We want to remain French’). The MPM is categorically opposed to the plan for independence as proposed by the central authorities. In July 1975, three of the four Comoros islands, except for Mayotte, become independent and form a new nation.

On 1 August 1955, in view of Sudan’s likely proclamation of independence, the Office of Intelligence Research in the US Department of State drafts an intelligence brief on the implications for Egyptian–Sudanese relations of an independent Sudan.

On 19 August 1955, Francis Cumming-Bruce, a British diplomat in the Commonwealth Relations Office, drafts a highly critical internal note on the political and economic future of the Gold Coast after independence. The note examines the various factors that threaten the country’s short-term stability and particularly highlights weaknesses in the existing local administration and political structures. It also looks at the nature of future relations between the United Kingdom and the Gold Coast.

On 16 September 1955, the British Foreign Office sends a telegram to the British Embassy in Cairo in which it sets out its position on the process of independence in Sudan and advises Egypt not to oppose Sudanese independence.

On 2 October 1955, the United Kingdom Embassy to Cairo informs the British Foreign Office that the Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, accepts the holding of a referendum on the independence of Sudan.

On 29 December 1955, the Commonwealth Relations Office publishes a letter from Sir Percivale Liesching, United Kingdom High Commissioner in South Africa, to Sir John Gilbert Laithwaite, Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, on the future relations of the Gold Coast with the Commonwealth. He informs him of a conversation he had with the Prime Minister of South Africa, Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom, on the possible admission of the Gold Coast to the Commonwealth.

On 6 January 1956, Sir Philip George Doyne Adams, British Chargé d’Affaires in Khartoum, sends a letter to John Selwyn Brooke Lloyd, British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, in which he describes the Sudanese independence ceremony. After the proclamation by the Sudanese Parliament of the country’s independence on 19 December 1955, official recognition was granted two weeks later.

On 3 July 1956, the British Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, outlines his position on the future relations between the Gold Coast and the Commonwealth. If the Gold Coast gains independence, Anthony Eden would approve the country’s accession to the Commonwealth.

On 5 July 1956, the Prime Minister of South Africa, Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom, sends a letter to British Prime Minister Anthony Eden in which he criticises the United Kingdom’s position regarding the Gold Coast. Johannes Strijdom expresses his scepticism at the country’s future independence and admission to the Commonwealth.

In a memorandum dated 17 September 1956, the Commonwealth Relations Office reports on the victory of Prime Minister Kwame Nkrumah in the general election held in July 1956. His victory paves the way for the independence of the Gold Coast.

On 7 February 1957, the Ghana Independence Act is published. The independence of the former British colony of the Gold Coast, within the Commonwealth, is proclaimed on 6 March 1957.

When Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) becomes independent on 6 March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah becomes the country’s first Prime Minister (1957 to 1960), then President of the Republic of Ghana (1960 to 1966). From left to right, Komla Agbeli Gbedemah, Finance Minister, Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister, and Kojo Botsio, Minister for Trade and Employment, at the ceremonies held to mark Ghanaian independence.

In a note dated 15 April 1957, the British Colonial Office reports on the development of the Sierre Leone Independence Movement (SLIM) and particularly focuses on its founder, Edward Wilmot Blyden III.

On 3 January 1960, Ahmadou Ahidjo, Prime Minister then first President of the Republic of Cameroon (1960–1982), presides over one of the many ceremonies held to mark the country’s independence, which was proclaimed on 1 January 1960.

On 16 February 1960, B. J. Greenhill from the Colonial Office comments on a memorandum from the British Colonial Secretary, Iain Macleod, on Nigerian independence and the country’s membership of the Commonwealth.

On 30 September 1960, on the eve of the proclamation of Nigeria’s independence on 1 October 1960, the United Kingdom sends its congratulations to the Nigerian Prime Minister Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa.

Meeting on 26 June 1960 between Abdirashid Ali Shermarke (on the right) and Aden Abdullah Osman Daar (on the left). A few days later, on 1 July 1960, Somalia gains independence. Abdirashid Ali Shermarke becomes Prime Minister of Somalia and Aden Abdullah Osman Daar becomes President.

In a memorandum dated November 1960, the Commonwealth Relations Office examines the economic situation in Nigeria and analyses the financial aid granted by the United Kingdom to Nigeria before and after the country’s independence.

In a background brief dated 31 January 1961, the Commonwealth Relations Office outlines the financial aid granted by the United Kingdom to Nigeria between 1946 and 1962.

On 1 May 1961, the United Kingdom High Commission in Lagos transmits a despatch dated 13 March 1961 from the Deputy High Commissioner for the United Kingdom in Ibadan on the economic situation in Western Nigeria in the first six months after independence to the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, Duncan Sandys.

Sir Milton Augustus Strieby Margai, the first Prime Minister of Sierra Leone (1961–1964).

On 20 November 1961, Richard Gordon Turnbull sends the British Colonial Office a draft of the address he is planning to give at the ceremony to mark the proclamation of Tanganyika’s independence on 9 December 1961. Richard Turnbull was the final Governor of Tanganyika (1958–1961); following the country’s independence, he became Governor-General.

On 9 December 1961, the new Prime Minister of Tanganyika, Julius Kambarage Nyerere, gives an address at the ceremony held to mark the proclamation of the country’s independence.

Following the independence of Tanganyika, Julius Nyerere becomes Prime Minister (1960–1961) then President (1961–1964) of the Republic of Tanganyika. When the state of Zanzibar merges with Tanganyika in 1964, he becomes President of the United Republic of Tanzania (1964–1985).

On 9 October 1962, as celebrations are held to mark the independence of Uganda, Milton Obote, the country’s first head of government, swears an oath of allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, since his country is now a full member of the Commonwealth.

On 25 September 1963, the Kenyan Prime Minister Jomo Kenyatta gives an address at the conference attended by British and Kenyan representatives from 25 September to 6 October 1963 in London. The aim of the conference is to finalise the constitutional arrangements ahead of the independence of Kenya on 12 December 1963.

On 25 September 1963, Duncan Sandys, British Secretary of State for the Colonies, gives an address at the opening session of the conference attended by British and Kenyan representatives from 25 September to 6 October 1963 in London to finalise the constitutional arrangements for an independent Kenya.

In anticipation of Kenya’s independence on 12 December 1963, the governments of the United Kingdom, Kenya and Zanzibar sign an agreement under which Zanzibar agrees to cede the Kenyan coastal strip to Kenya, without compensation.

On 17 October 1963, as preparations are made for Kenyan independence, the British Colonial Office drafts a note on the future of Europeans living in Kenya. It particularly focuses on their concerns with regard to security, citizenship and land resources.

On 13 December 1963, the day after the proclamation of Kenya’s independence, Jomo Kenyatta, the first Kenyan Prime Minister, holds aloft the act of independence. On the left: Prince Philip, representing Queen Elizabeth II.

In a letter dated 1 May 1964 and sent to the British Prime Minister, Alec Douglas-Home, the Malaysian Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, welcomes the forthcoming independence of Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) on 6 July 1964 and expresses his country’s support for Malawi’s future membership of the Commonwealth and the United Nations.

On 10 June 1964, the Malawi Independence Act is published. The independence of the former British colony of Nyasaland, within the Commonwealth, is proclaimed on 6 July 1964.

In a telegram dated 3 July 1964, the Commonwealth Relations Office sends the Malawi Government a message of congratulations from British Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home to Malawi Prime Minister Hastings Kamuzu Banda for the country’s independence on 6 July 1964.

Prince Philip takes part in the festivities held to mark the independence of Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) on 6 July 1964.

In a note dated 11 June 1964, Cabinet Secretary Sir Burke Trend informs British Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home on the question of the financial assistance granted by the United Kingdom to Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia.

On 18 November 1964, Saville Garner, Permanent Under-Secretary of State at the Commonwealth Relations Office, sends a letter to Arthur Snelling at the Commonwealth Office in which he deplores the fact that Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith seems set to make a unilateral declaration of independence for Southern Rhodesia. He is particularly concerned that this will lead to the country’s economic collapse.

On 24 October 1964, Northern Rhodesia gains independence, changing its name to Zambia. Kenneth Kaunda becomes the first President of the Republic of Zambia (1964–1991).

In a letter dated 25 February 1965, George Crombie, British High Commissioner in the Gambia, sends a letter to Arthur George Bottomley, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, on the festivities held to mark the independence of the Gambia on 18 February 1965.

Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara (on the left), Prime Minister (1962–1970) then first President of the Republic of the Gambia (1970–1994), welcomes Ahmed Sékou Touré (on the right), the first President of the Republic of Guinea (1958–1984), to Banjul.

In the Southern Rhodesia Act of 16 November 1965, the British Parliament declares the proclamation of independence for Southern Rhodesia by the Rhodesian Front government led by Ian Smith to be illegal.

Following the unilateral declaration of independence of Southern Rhodesia on 11 November 1965 by the government led by Ian Smith, Anthony Greenwood, Secretary of State for the Colonies, issues a circular on 20 December 1965 announcing a British embargo on agricultural products from Rhodesia and inviting other countries to take similar measures.

Seretse Khama, the first President of Botswana (formerly Bechuanaland), after the country’s independence (1966–1980). In the background, the photo shows his wife, Ruth Williams.

On 4 October 1966, the day on which the British protectorate of Basutoland becomes an independent country under the name of the Kingdom of Lesotho, Joseph Leabua Jonathan, the Lesotho Prime Minister, addresses the nation.

On 7 October 1966, three days after the independence of Lesotho, Joseph Leabua Jonathan, the Lesotho Prime Minister, sends a letter to the British Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, in which he asks for the British Government’s financial support for Lesotho.

In a letter dated 14 October 1966, the British High Commissioner in Maseru, Ian Watt, informs the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, Herbert William Bowden, about the festivities held to mark the independence of Lesotho on 4 October 1966.

Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, Prime Minister of South Africa (1958–1966), and Joseph Leabua Jonathan, Prime Minister of Lesotho (1965–1986).

Report on the Swaziland Independence Conference, held in London from 19 to 23 February 1968 between representatives of the United Kingdom and Swaziland. The independence of the African country was proclaimed on 6 September 1968.

On 7 June 1968, a note from the Swaziland Department in the Commonwealth Relations Office outlines the process that will lead to the independence of Swaziland. The country is granted independence on 6 September 1968.

In July 1968, the Swaziland Independence Bill is debated in the British House of Commons. The independence of Swaziland is proclaimed on 6 September 1968.

Sobhuza II, King of Swaziland (1921–1982), at the festivities held to mark the independence of his country on 6 September 1968.

Note dated 30 September 1968 on the reactions in the British, US and South African press to the proclamation of Swaziland’s independence on 6 September 1968.

Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, first Prime Minister (1968–1982) then Governor-General (1983–1985) of Mauritius.

On 24 December 1951, Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi, the first King of Libya under the name of Idris I, proclaims the independence of his country.

On 13 January 1959, Baudouin I, King of the Belgians, makes a statement to the Chamber of Deputies in which he announces the Belgian State’s resolve to initiate a self-determination process in the Belgian Congo. In its news programme, RTL broadcasts an extract of this address before handing over to Maurice van Hemelrijck, Minister for the Congo and Ruanda-Urundi, who outlines the Belgian Government’s determination gradually to enable the Congolese people to take a decision on their political independence.

On 29 June 1960, the day before the proclamation of independence of the Belgian Congo, Joseph Kasa-Vubu, the future President of the new Republic of Congo, Patrice Émery Lumumba, the new Prime Minister, and Baudouin I, King of the Belgians, meet in Léopoldville.

On 30 June 1960, the official ceremony to mark Congolese independence is held in Leopoldville, attended by King Baudouin and the new President of the Republic of Congo, Joseph Kasa-Vubu.

On 1 July 1960, the day after Congo gains independence, Joseph Kasa-Vubu, who was elected by the first Congolese Parliament as the first President of the Republic of Congo, takes part in the procession to celebrate independence held in Leopoldville.

‘Freedom in the Congo.’ On 16 July 1960, the German cartoonist, Herbert Kolfhaus, takes an ironic look at the direct consequences of the independence granted to the Belgian Congo on 30 June 1960.

On 17 October 1963, Mwambutsa IV Bangiricenge, King of Burundi (1915–1966), makes an official visit to Belgium.

The Tshombe-Spaak agreement, signed on 6 February 1965 in Brussels, puts an end to the ongoing dispute between Belgium and Congo over unresolved financial problems between the two countries following Congo’s independence on 30 June 1960. This compromise between Belgium and Congo particularly concerns Congo’s assets and public debt. The photo shows Congolese Prime Minister Moise Tshombe (centre) and Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak (right).

On 4 February 1966, Baudouin I, King of the Belgians, welcomes Grégoire Kayibanda, President of the Republic of Rwanda, as he makes an official visit to Belgium.

Francisco Macías Nguema, Deputy Prime Minister of the autonomous government of Equatorial Guinea (1964–1968) then first President of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea (1968–1979), at the ceremony for the independence of Equatorial Guinea on 12 October 1968.

Luís Cabral (on the right), first President of Guinea-Bissau (1973–1980) and deputy leader of the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), speaks to soldiers from the liberation army in June 1974.

On 5 July 1975, the new President of Cape Verde, Aristides Pereira (on the left), and the Portuguese Prime Minister, Vasco dos Santos Gonçalves, sign the agreement on the independence of the islands of Cape Verde.

Samora Moises Machel, first President of the independent People’s Republic of Mozambique (1975–1986).

On 15 November 1975, a few days after independence is proclaimed for Angola, Angolans attend a political meeting. Most of the Portuguese nationals have already left the country, which has been torn apart by a civil war between rival movements MPLA, FNLA and UNITA, each vying for power.