Detailed note from the French Foreign Ministry dated 28 January 1953 reviewing the possible consequences of the European Defence Community (EDC) on France’s position in the world.

On 25 February 1953, General Charles de Gaulle holds a press conference in Paris during which he declares his support for cooperation between European States in the field of defence, whilst indicating his opposition to the establishment of the European Defence Community (EDC).

In June 1953, the French journal Fédération publishes a series of articles by supporters and opponents of the European Defence Community.

On 16 November 1953, the Belgian daily newspaper Le Soir raises the question of the inclusion of German armed forces within the European Defence Community.

‘German Europe.’ In December 1953, the communist journal Démocratie nouvelle demonstrates its hostility towards the European Defence Community (EDC) and illustrates the dangers of German rearmament for France and Europe. French cartoonist Mitelberg shows a German helmet from the Wehrmacht descending on Paris, plunging Europe and France into darkness in a scene that recalls the Second World War. By evoking the painful memory of the occupation of Europe by German troops, Mitelberg illustrates the fear that history will repeat itself if West Germany regains its armed forces. The term ‘German’ written in barbed wire also hints at the horror of the concentration camps and the crimes perpetrated by the Nazis.

In December 1953, in the Communist journal Démocratie nouvelle, Senator Petit, a retired French General, outlines the risks involved in integrating German troops into the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 1 December 1953, British cartoonist David Low illustrates the Soviet Union’s opposition to the plan for a European Defence Community (EDC). On the left, Georgiy Maksimilianovich Malenkov, President of the Council of Ministers, and Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Molotov, Soviet Foreign Minister.

On 23 February 1954, crowds demonstrate in East Berlin against the rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and against the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 9 March 1954, after a visit to France, Belgian MP Pierre Wigny publishes an article in the daily newspaper La Nation belge in which he criticises the arguments of those opposed to the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 17 March 1954, General Charles de Gaulle sends a letter to General Béthouart in which he expresses his opposition to the plan for a European Defence Community (EDC).

‘Get this idea well and truly into your head!’ On 22 April 1954, French cartoonist Roger Chancel represents the death threat that would hang over France if it were to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC). The knife of the EDC may well turn out to be fatal for the people of France, represented by Marianne, the allegorical figure of the French Republic, wearing a Phrygian cap.

With this poster, the National Federation of Deportees and Internees, Resistance Fighters and Patriots call on the French people not to ratify the treaties establishing the European Defence Community (EDC), since it sees therein a return to the atrocities perpetrated by the German army during the Second World War.

‘Konrad will certainly have a uniform — but which one?’ In August 1954, as debates are held on the establishment of a European Defence Community (EDC), cartoonist Fritz Behrendt takes an ironic look at the summary proposal of Pierre Mendès France, President of the French Council of Ministers and French Foreign Minister, regarding the possible rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).

On 19 February 1952, the British cartoonist, David Low, illustrates the efforts of Robert Schuman, French Foreign Minister, and Konrad Adenauer, German Chancellor, to establish a European army, under the ironic and dubious eye of the United States and the United Kingdom.

On 2 February 1953, Paul Struye, Belgian Member of the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), comments on the United States’ position on the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) and describes the role of German forces in the future European army.

Letter from Robert Silvercruys, Belgian Ambassador to the United States, to Paul van Zeeland, Belgian Foreign Minister, on US concerns over the delay in ratifying the EDC Treaty in Europe.

On 14 April 1954, in a statement in the House of Commons, the British Government outlines the commitments to the European Defence Community entered into by the United Kingdom.

On 16 April 1954, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower makes a statement on future relations between the United States, the European Defence Community (EDC) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).

On 19 May 1954, the German daily newspaper Die Welt speculates on the risks and consequences of a possible refusal by France to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 23 June 1954, as debates are held in the United Kingdom on the European Defence Community (EDC) and on the issue of the rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), the British cartoonist, David Low, takes an ironic look at the opposition of Aneurin Bevan, Welsh politician and member of the British Labour Party, to the establishment of the EDC.

In February 1953, the Dutch cartoonist, Opland, illustrates the difficulties involved in the ratification of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 1 May 1953, Victor Larock, leader of the Belgian Socialist Party, gives his views in an article in the Dutch daily newspaper Het Parool on the question of the ratification of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community.

On 7 November 1953, the daily newspaper Le Peuple, the official mouthpiece of the Belgian Socialist Party, speculates on the socialists’ position on the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 12 November 1953, as part of the ratification procedure for the Treaty establishing a European Defence Community (EDC), the Belgian Chamber of Representatives discusses the issues surrounding the question of a European army.

On 2 March 1954, as debates begin in the Belgian Senate on the bill to approve the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC), Belgian Foreign Minister Paul van Zeeland emphasises how important it is to establish the EDC.

On 3 March 1954, as debates on the European Defence Community (EDC) are held in the Belgian Senate, Fernand Dehousse, a Belgian socialist senator and pro-European activist, describes the advantages of the Treaty establishing the EDC.

On 8 April 1954, the Luxembourg daily newspaper Luxemburger Wort outlines the reasons why Luxembourg is in favour of a European Defence Community.

On 29 January 1953, a draft law stressing the importance of the European Defence Community (EDC) and calling on Vincent Auriol, French President, to ratify the Treaty establishing the EDC is put before the French National Assembly.

On 18 February 1953, the Dutch journal Internationale Spectator comments on the situation in France after the presentation of the Pleven Plan on 24 October 1950 and the signing of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community on 27 May 1952.

French poster in support of the European Defence Community (EDC).

French poster portraying the need for European military cooperation within a European Defence Community (EDC) in order to avoid further armed conflict on the European continent.

On 30 June 1954, Paul-Henri Spaak, Belgian Foreign Minister, summarises the talks that he had had the same day in Paris with Pierre Mendès France, French Prime Minister, during which he explained the reasons behind some of his reservations regarding the plans for a European Defence Community (EDC).

‘Remember 1940.’ On 31 July 1954, French cartoonist Louis Mitelberg illustrates the potential dangers of participation by the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the European Defence Community (EDC), alluding to the painful memory of the Second World War and the exodus of French civilians fleeing the Nazi invader. Many fear that including German troops in a European Defence Community (EDC) would lead to a revival of German militarism and see history repeating itself.

French poster from 1954 in favour of the European Defence Community (EDC). The EDC is represented as a shield, a defensive alliance ‘for peace’ against the fascist and Soviet threats.

In this letter to Jean Monnet, Pierre Mendès France, President of the Council and French Foreign Minister, describes the internal policy problems which he is encountering a few days before the vote in the French National Assembly on the ratification of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

‘With or without the EDC … “German contingent … by the right … quick march!”’ On 19 August 1954, German cartoonist Ernst Maria Lang illustrates the fears of Pierre Mendès France, President of the French Council of Ministers and French Foreign Minister, at the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) and the rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). Despite the attempts of Mendès France to prevent the revival of a German army, it seems to be inevitable.

Le 27 août 1954, Robert Als, ambassadeur luxembourgeois à Paris, adresse une lettre à Joseph Bech, président du gouvernement luxembourgeois, dans laquelle il se montre sceptique quant à la volonté de la France de ratifier le Traité instituant la Communauté européenne de défense (CED).

For Pierre Mendès France, President of the Council and French Minister for Foreign Affairs, the die has already been cast several days before the French National Assembly votes to reject the EDC Treaty.

On the eve of the debates in the French National Assembly, the French press displays its scepticism regarding the European Defence Community's chances of success.

In his memoirs, Johan Willem Beyen, former Netherlands Foreign Minister, recalls the determination of Pierre Mendès France to seek last-minute amendments to a number of aspects relating to the implementation of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

In February 1953, Theodor Blank, Christian Democratic Member of the Bundestag and founder of the Dienststelle Blank, the section of the Chancellery with responsibility for issues relating to the strengthening of the Allied Forces in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), emphasises the importance of the rapid ratification of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 19 March 1953, German Federal Chancellor Konrad Adenauer gives an address to the Bundestag in which he declares his support for the ratification of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 19 March 1953, as the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC) and the future Treaty on Germany are ratified by the Bundestag, German State Secretary Walter Hallstein considers the various implications of the two new Treaties for West Germany.

On 19 March 1953, the Bundestag ratifies the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC), despite fierce opposition from the Communists, who see the European Army project as a precursor to the rearmament of Federal Germany.

On 29 April 1953, the Minister President of Bavaria, Hans Ehard, gives a radio broadcast in which he deplores the slow process of ratification of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC) in the Bundesrat (the second chamber of the Federal Parliament).

On 6 May 1953, Otto Lenz, State Secretary in the Federal Chancellery, welcomes the efforts being made by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany to ratify the future Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC) as quickly as possible.

Debates in the French National Assembly two days before the refusal to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

Debates in the National Assembly two days before the refusal to ratify the Treaty instituting the European Defence Community (EDC).

Debates in the National Assembly on the eve of the refusal to ratify the Treaty instituting the European Defence Community (EDC).

Debates in the National Assembly on the eve of the refusal to ratify the Treaty instituting the European Defence Community (EDC).

Debates in the French National Assembly the day before the refusal to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 28 August 1954, the debate on the European Defence Community (EDC) began in the French National Assembly. A preliminary motion to adjourn was proposed by those in favour of the the EDC. Its opponents countered this with a preliminary issue allowing rejection of the Treaty without any debate. Although Pierre Mendès France managed to get them to withdraw it, the next day a supporter of the EDC succeeded in presenting the preliminary issue once again.This provided for the intervention of two people representing the respective interests. The spokesman for the opponents was the ex-president of the Assembly, the radical Edouard Herriot. His contribution was the death warrant for the EDC.

Pierre Gerbet, Emeritus University Professor at the Paris Institute of Political Science, outlines the reasons for the paradoxical attitude taken by France when, on 31 August 1954, it rejected the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC) which René Pleven, President of the Council, had proposed as long ago as 24 October 1950.

In August 1954, while Egon Bahr was working in Berlin as editor-in-chief of Radio in the American Sector (RIAS) he attended debates in the French National Assembly on ratification of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC). He comments on the refusal of the National Assembly to ratify this Treaty as well as on this decision's consequences for the European integration process.

On 30 August 1954, Robert Als, Luxembourg Ambassador to Paris, sends a letter to Luxembourg Prime Minister Joseph Bech in which he analyses the attitude of Pierre Mendès-France during the debates on the European Defence Community.

On 30 August 1954, the Dutch daily newspaper Het Parool expresses its fears that the French National Assembly will reject the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 31 August 1954, the Dutch daily newspaper De Volkskrant expresses the disappointment felt in the Netherlands following the failure of the proposed European Defence Community (EDC).

On 1 September 1954, the Belgian daily newspaper Le Soir publishes Paul-Henri Spaak’s reactions to the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 2 September 1954, Robert Als, Luxembourg Ambassador to Paris, sends a letter to Luxembourg Prime Minister Joseph Bech in which he reports on discussions with François Seydoux, Director of the French Foreign Ministry’s European Department, and Alexandre Parodi, General Secretary of the French Foreign Ministry, on the result of the French vote on the EDC.

On 2 September 1954, the Luxembourg daily newspaper Luxemburger Wort discusses the impact on European defence of the French National Assembly’s refusal to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

On 2 September 1954, the Belgian Communist daily newspaper Le Drapeau rouge expresses its satisfaction at the French National Assembly's rejection of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC).

‘Ladies and Gentlemen, the show has been cancelled!’ This is how the Netherlands receive the news of France’s rejection, on 31 August 1954, of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC), which has, however, already been ratified by Germany and the three Benelux countries.

‘Refused!’ In 1954, Pierre Mendès France, French Prime Minister, refuses any form of participation by German forces in a European Defence Community (EDC), despite pleas from the US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, and the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden.

On 18 September 1954, Paul-Henri Spaak, Belgian Foreign Minister, gives an address to the Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe in which he deplores the persistent disputes between France and Germany which led the French National Assembly to reject the Treaty of the European Defence Community (EDC) a few days earlier.

On 4 October 1954, after the French National Assembly refuses to ratify the Treaty on the European Defence Community (EDC), the Dutch daily newspaper Het Vrije Volk speculates on the question of European defence.

On 30 August 1954, Sennep sketches the love story between ‘Robert Schuman and the EDC’.

On 31 August 1954, the French communist newspaper L'Humanité hails the decision of the French National Assembly not to ratify the Treaty instituting the European Defence Community (EDC) as a victory for the French people.

On 31 August 1954, the French Communist daily newspaper L'Humanité welcomes the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) and publishes figures which differ from those of the official results.

On 31 August 1954, André Philip, President of the Socialist Movement for the United States of Europe (SMUSE), analyses the impact of France’s domestic politics and the role played by the French press in the debates on the European Defence Community (EDC).

Under the pen name of Sirius, Hubert Beuve-Méry, founder of the French daily newspaper Le Monde, comments on the events that took place on 30 August 1954 in the French National Assembly.

On 30 August 1954, the French National Assembly refuses to discuss the diplomatic document which would allow the President of the Republic to ratify the EDC Treaty.

‘To the woods to celebrate the victory of Little Red Riding Hood!’ On 5 September 1954, taking inspiration from the story of Little Red Riding Hood, a cartoon by Effel in the French communist daily newspaper L’Humanité illustrates the decision by the French National Assembly not to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC). The big bad wolf, wearing a Wehrmacht helmet marked ‘EDC’, is defeated by a young, dynamic Marianne (depicted as Red Riding Hood).

On 20 September 1954, the Central Committee of the Union of European Federalists (UEF) sharply criticises French policy for the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) and calls for the creation of a federal Europe.

On 31 August 1954, the Italian daily newspaper Corriere della Sera comments on the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) and deplores the French National Assembly’s decision.

On 31 August 1954, the day after the refusal by the French National Assembly to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC), the Italian Communist daily newspaper L’Unità gleefully heads its front page with: ‘The EDC is dead’.

On 1 September 1954, the Italian Communist daily newspaper L’Unità welcomes the rejection, the previous day, of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC) by the French National Assembly.

In his memoirs, Anthony Eden, British Foreign Secretary from 1951 to 1955, recalls the tour of European capitals that he undertook in order to set out his plans for pursuing the goal of European unification following the failure of the EDC.

On 8 September 1954, British cartoonist Leslie Gilbert Illingworth illustrates the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) following the French National Assembly’s rejection of the EDC Treaty. On the right, Pierre Mendès France, French Prime Minister and Foreign Minister.

On 31 August 1954, John Foster Dulles, US Secretary of State, comments on the French National Assembly’s rejection of the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC) and calls for the continued restoration of sovereignty to the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).

In this letter sent to the Belgian Foreign Minister, Paul-Henri Spaak, on 3 December 1954, Robert Silvercruys, the Belgian Ambassador to the United States, considers the mindset of US officials following the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) project.

On 31 August 1954, the Soviet daily newspaper Pravda applauds the rejection by the French National Assembly of the Treaty establishing a European Defence Community (EDC).

On 1 September 1954, the Soviet daily newspaper Pravda welcomes the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) and emphasises the efforts being made by the USSR to guarantee peace and security in Europe.

On 19 September 1954, meeting in Paris under the chairmanship of Henri Frenay, the UEF Central Committee unanimously adopts a resolution blaming France for the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) project on 30 August 1954 and calls on its members to show their support for the establishment of a European Constituent Assembly and a federal Europe.

In September 1954, the French Section of the European Movement publishes a communiqué in which it criticises the National Assembly’s rejection, on 30 August, of the Treaty establishing a European Defence Community (EDC).